Introduction

Antarctica was the last continent to be explored and remained virtually unknown until early in the twentieth century. The first explorers expected to find in Antarctica a southern land fertile and inhabited. This idea of a Terra australis incognita can be traced to Ptolemy and Ancient Greece and was slowly whittled down by heroic explorers. The intention here is not to report every voyage to Antarctica but only the major explorations. This choice is nessarily subjective and omits great explorers such as Bouvet de Lozier, Marion du Frezne and Crozet, Yves Joseph de Kerguelen-Tremarec, the highly controversed Benjamin Morrell and many others.

These explorers brought back more or less accurate, truthful and objective information from this inhospitable and dangerous but fascinating and beautiful environment. Their journeys are mostly known through their journals where they reported facts, scientific discovery, feelings and poetry. "Explorers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries sailed in frail wooden vessels into the harshest environment on earth, and gradually a true picture of the southern polar region emerged. National interests moved in and through heroic effort most of Antarctica was charted - though by no means conquered" (in McGonigal and Woodworth 2001 - see ? ).

Listen to the short story of the "Island of Utopia":

Drake

In 1572, the brilliant English navigator Francis Drake led an expedition to raid Spanish possessions in Panama. He reaches the entrance of the Strait of Magellan in August 1578. He discovered that Tierra del Fuego is an island, and that the tip of the Southern Continent must lie even further to the south. Reference: "Typus Orbis Terrarum" - Ortelius - 1570 (in McGonigal and Woodworth 2001 - see ? ).

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Tasman

By 1642, the Dutch colony of Batavia was well established and ships of the Dutch East India Company had explored parts of the west coast of Australia. But, no one knew whether Australia was part of the legendary Great South Land. Abel Janszoon Tasman sailed from Batavia to explore the Indian and Pacific Oceans. On this voyage, he discovered Tasmania as well as New Zealand. He circumnavigated the continent of Australia for the first time without ever seeing the southern continent. The Great South Land had shrunk once again. Reference: "Polus Antarcticus" - Johannes Jansson's - 1650 (in McGonigal and Woodworth 2001 - see ? ).

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Cook

James Cook made the first circumnavigation of Antarctica during two voyages in the summer of 1772-73 and summer of 1774-75. During these voyages, Cook and his crew crossed the Antarctic circle four times. Cook returned to England on 30 July 1775. The quest for the mythical bounty of the fertile great Southern Continent was over: it did not exist. Cook wrote: "I had now made the circuit of the Southern Ocean in a high latitude... in such a manner as to leave not the least room for the possibility of there being a continent, unless near the Pole and out of the reach of navigation..." Reference: "A chart of the Southern Hemisphere" - George Forster - 1777 (in McGonigal and Woodworth 2001 - see ? ).

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Bellingshausen

The Russian von Bellingshausen built on Cook's expeditions with the intention of starting a new kind of journey: the quest for the South Pole (rather than the Great Southern Continent). He did not reach the South Pole but he reportedly discovered the first land ever seen within the Antarctica circle (Peter Island) as well as Alexander Island and the South Shetland Islands.

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Weddell

In February 1823 James Weddell sailed to Antarctica seeking fresh commercial seal stocks. Favored by exceptional weather conditions he pushed further south than anyone before him, into the ice sea that now bears his name. Sealers and whalers became pioneers in the exploration of the continent.

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Biscoe

Biscoe with 29 crew and two vessels sailed from England in July 1830 for seal hunting. They sailed back into London on 8 February 1833 with just 30 seal skins to show for a 30 months voyage. Although not a commercial success, Biscoe's voyage established the existence of a large continent at the heart of the ice. Reference: Watercolor painting by August Earle (1793-1838) (in McGonigal and Woodworth 2001 - see ? ).

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Balleny

Balleny was another sealer who discovered some islands where he briefly - and damply - landed there. It was the first landing below the Antarctic Circle.

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Urville

It is due to Frenchman Dumont d'Urville that there is a sliver of French territory amidst the giant Australian Antarctic claim. He named Adélie Land after his wife, and the Adélie penguin is named for the land he discovered. After a first failure in 1838 to go further South he challenged the truth of Wedell's story. In a second attempt (1840) he tried to reach the magnetic pole. Dumont d'Urville did not reach the pole but was able to land a tiny islet barely within the polar circle, revealing the tricolor, and collecting some granite chips and a few unlucky penguins.

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Wilkes

Charles Wilkes led the first US expedition to Antarctica. Six ships set off in 1838, but only two survived the whole expedition. He claimed to have seen land just 3 days before Dumont d'Urville, but this claim is regarded as highly suspect. In fact claimed sailings over land designated by Wilkes naturally affirmed its apparent non-existence but, as Simpson-Housley (1992 - see ? ) points out there are definitely extenuating and redeeming factors for this claim. This question has precipitated not only debate but also animosity and patriotic fervour. Ross strongly condemned Wilkes designation and mapping of land. Wilkes did however sail further along and closer to the Antarctic coast than any previous expedition, and was thus the first explorer to declare it a continent.

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Ross

James Clark Ross had already made six Artic expeditions, and had located the North Magnetic Pole, when he sailed South in 1839 to find its southern equivalent. Ross and his British expedition expected to find the South Magnetic Pole somewhere in the sea. Instead he founded the Ross Sea and discovered that the South Magnetic Pole was on land. Was stoped twice by an ice barrier (Ross Ice Shelf) and with 78°10'S for 50 years he held the record for the Southernmost journey.

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Gerlache

The Brussels Geographical Society assembled an Antarctic scientific expedition initiated and led by a young naval lieutenant, Adrien de Gerlache. The expedition took some of the first photographs of Antarctica. [First photographic record - March 1898 (in McGonigal and Woodworth 2001 - see ? )] They crossed the Antarctic circle on 15 February and encountered pack ice, but pushed on until it became clear that they were trapped in ice for the winter. Although some pressure ridges developed, the vessel was never seriously threatened. On 14 March 1899 the boat was freed. It then became apparent that it was possible to spend the winter in Antarctica.

This movie, taken from NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio ( http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov ), depicts Gerlache's voyage.

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Borchgrevink

Carsten Borchgrevink led the first land-based expedition. On 15 February 1899 the expedition landed at Cape Adare and it took 12 days to land the wintering party's supplies. Soon afterward they erected two prefabricated huts of Norwegian pine on shore where 10 men spent the winter. They left Cape Adare on 2 February 1900. The news that it was possible to survive a winter ashore in Antarctica was noteworthy, but their return attracted little interest with the exception that the public was interested to learn that there were no large land animals in Antarctica.

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Scott

References:Scott was the first Antarctic balloonist ((in McGonigal and Woodworth 2001 - see ? ), Officers and scientific staff on the stern of the "discovery" (in McGonigal and Woodworth 2001 - see ? )

Scott lead the British National Antarctic Expedition in June 1899. The expedition goals combined exploration and science. They crossed the Antarctic Circle on 3 January 1902. The expedition made some excursions on land. The first attempt to sledge to the South Pole departed on November 1902. The three man party of Scott, Wilson and Shackleton and 19 dogs did not win. They did not travel beyond the Ross Ice Shelf. There were a series of excursions over the winter of 1903. One of them, led by Scott, covered 1170 km (725 miles). Scott's two-volume account of the expedition, The Voyage of the Discovery, has become a classic of Antarctic literature.

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Drygalski

Eric Von Drygalski, professor of geography and geophysics at the University of Berlin led a scientific expedition. The expedition spent a winter trapped in ice, collecting geological samples and making magnetic observations. Although the expedition discovered little in the way of new territories, it produced 20 volumes of scientific reports.

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Nordenskjöld

In February 1902, Nordenskjöld's scientific party of six landed at snow Hill Island for the winter. During that time another party led by captain Larsen stayed on the ship Antarctica to conduct scientific work elsewhere. The two parties would be reunited the following summer. Unfortunately, ice conditions remained severe all through the summer and the landing party was trapped for at least another winter. Meanwhile Antarctica was also trapped in the ice. The ship was damaged and the party had to abandon it. Several search and rescue expeditions were being prepared. Finally, both parties were miraculously rescued. This was typical of an expedition that had carried out a full scientific program throughout a remarkable, harrowing adventure.

Reference: Map produced by Nordenskjöld and cartographer Duse (in McGonigal and Woodworth 2001 - see ? ).

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Bruce

William Spiers Bruce led a scientific expedition with the focus on a hydrographic and wildlife survey of the Weddell Sea. They spent the winter on South Orkney Island and headed south again in late February 1904. The group made an important discovery: an ice plateau on the southeast. Bruce named it "Coats Land". He deduced that this long coastline must be an extension of Enderby Land, and therefore part of the continent rather than just an island - a discovery as significant as Ross's of McMurdo Sound on the other side of the continent.

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Charcot

Jean-Baptiste Charcot led 2 major Antarctic Expeditions: 1903-05 and 1908-10. During the first expedition (see map), over two summers he explored the West side of the Antarctic peninsula. The work done was published in 18 volumes of scientific reports. During the second expedition they sailed further West and charted 2,000 km of coastline. Charcot published 28 volumes of scientific reports. Roald Amundsen credited Charcot with "opening up a large extent of the unknown continent in... one of the most difficult fields of Antarctica zone to work in."

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Shackleton

Ernest Shackleton was probably the most charismatic of all Antarctic explorers. He led an expedition to carry out overland excursions and attempt to reach the South Geographic Pole. On 29 october 1908 a party of 4 led by Shackleton set out for the South Geographic Pole. In early December they became the first men to reach the southern extent of the Ross Ice Shelf. The excursion was a nightmare and they had to return without reaching the South Pole. Meanwhile another party tried to reach the South Magnetic Pole. The party had been close to the area of polar oscillation (Glossary) but had not penetrated it. Shackleton was to return to Antarctica in 1914 and his name is prominently associated with the continent.

"And I smelt the Galleys odour Heard curses of sailor men. Heard moaning of bitter salt winds: Shrieking of gathering gales: Wings of wild sea birds rising, Beat the waves like threshers flails." in 'A Tale of the Sea' (Shackleton 1895 in Simpson-Housley 1992, 105 - see ? )

Reference: Picture of Ernest Shackleton (1874-1922) (in McGonigal and Woodworth 2001 - see ? ).

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Amundsen

Roald Amundsen was the first to conquer the Northwest Passage. He would also be the first to trek to the South Pole in 1911. He established his base on the ice at the Bay of Whales. On 19 October five men started for the Pole on skis and sledges with about 50 dogs. At the base of the climb to the polar ice cap, Amundsen outlined his plan (narration p.449/450). With the same exactness that characterized the whole expedition, they were the first men to reach the South Pole the 14 December 1911.

Reference: Oscar Wisting with his dog team at the pole (in McGonigal and Woodworth 2001 - see ? ).

According to Amundsen his motivations to reach the South Pole was mostly "a victory of human strength over the dominion and powers of Nature; a deed that lifts us above the grey monotony of daily life; a view over shining plains with lofty mountains against the cold blue sky, and lands covered by ice sheets of inconceivable extent; a vision of long vanished glacial times; the triumph of living over the stiffened realm of death" (Amundsen 1912 , Vol. 1: xxix-xxx in Simpson-Housley 1992, 26 - see ? )

The following audio track narrates Amundsen's trip to Antarctica from his own journal.

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Byrd

Richard Byrd was already an American hero for his success in flying over the North Pole in 1926, when he turned his sights to the South Pole. With the advice of Roald Amundsen, the leader of the only party to return from the Pole, and substantial corporate backing, he was sure of his ability to succeed. The crew of four flew over the South Pole at 1.14 am on 29 November 1929, 10 hours after their departure.

See the movie, taken from NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio ( http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov ), is a reproduction of Richard Byrd's voyage. The animation is based on RADARSAT data from the Antarctic Mapping Mission.

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Ellsworth

The challenge of Ellsworth was to complete the first trans-Antarctic flight. After two unsuccessful attempts he left Dundee Island with his co-pilot Herbert Hollick-Kenyon on 20 November 1935. Anticipating a 14-hour flight, they finally reached Little America on foot 22 days later. Because of bad weather they had to land several times and they ran out of fuel less than half an hour from their destination. Eventually, on 15 December, after a long and tortuous 10-day trek, they reached the Ross Sea on foot.

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Fuchs-Hillary

The International Geophysical Year (IGY) focused attention on Antarctic science and was a stepping stone to the Antarctica Treaty of 1959. Among the many events, a Commonwealth Transatlantic Expedition was organized. Edmond Hillary, New Zealand conqueror of Mount Everest and Vivian Fuchs, Director of the British Antarctic Survey, were a formidable team to lead the first successful crossing of the Antarctic Continent. They shared the honors - Fuchs completing the whole crossing and Hillary becoming the first to reach the South Pole overland since Scott.

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NASA

Although maps of the Antarctic continent were created as part of many expeditions, it was not until recently that the entire Southern continent was mapped at high resolution. This was accomplished through the use of remote sensing technology. In 1997, a joint Canadian-American operation conducted the RADARSAT Antarctic Mapping Mission 1 and exciting new maps and scientific findings were generated. These included: the discovery of new ice stream systems in the eastern Antarctic; the first radar-derived map of ice divides and catchment areas; the discovery of extensive mega-snowdune fields and ice velocity data, which are important in determining if the Antarctic ice cap is shrinking and in understanding global climate changes.

This movie shows a satellite flying over Antarctica, similar to the first one that provided us with a full mapping of Antarctica.

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References

Our main sources of information for this module are:

McGonigal D. and L. Woodworth (eds.) 2001. Antarctica and the Arctic - The Complete Encyclopedia. Willowdale: Firefly Books.

Simpson-Housley P. (1992). Antarctica: Exploration, perception and metaphor. London and New York: Routledge.

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